Ap Us History

# Mastering AP US History: A Comprehensive Course

Welcome to your comprehensive guide to mastering the AP US History exam. This course is meticulously designed to provide you with the knowledge, skills, and confidence needed to excel. We will delve into the rich tapestry of American history, from the pre-Columbian era to the present day, exploring the key themes, events, and figures that have shaped the nation. Our approach is grounded in the E-E-A-T (Experience, Expertise, Authoritativeness, and Trustworthiness) framework, ensuring that you receive the most accurate, reliable, and insightful content available.

This course is structured around the nine historical periods outlined by the College Board, the official administrator of the AP program [1]. Each period is broken down into key concepts, and we will explore the intricate connections between them. We will also focus on developing the historical thinking skills that are essential for success on the exam, such as analyzing primary and secondary sources, making historical comparisons, and crafting persuasive historical arguments.

To enhance your learning experience, we have embedded a curated selection of high-quality educational videos from trusted sources like the Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History and Crash Course. These videos will provide you with engaging and dynamic perspectives on the topics we cover. We have also included a comprehensive list of authoritative sources for further reading and research.

## Period 1: 1491–1607

This period focuses on the Americas before European contact and the initial interactions between Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans. It covers the diverse societies that existed in the Americas, the motivations for European exploration, and the profound consequences of the Columbian Exchange.

### Native American Societies Before European Contact

Long before the arrival of Europeans, the Americas were home to a vast and diverse array of Native American societies. These societies were incredibly complex and varied, with their own unique cultures, languages, and social structures. From the sophisticated agricultural systems of the Mayans and Aztecs in Mesoamerica to the nomadic hunting and gathering societies of the Great Plains, Native Americans adapted to a wide range of environments and developed innovative ways of life.

It is a common misconception that the Americas were a sparsely populated wilderness before the arrival of Europeans. In reality, millions of people lived in the Americas, and some cities, such as Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire, were among the largest in the world at the time. These societies had complex political systems, extensive trade networks, and rich spiritual traditions.

### European Exploration in the Americas

The late 15th and early 16th centuries were a period of intense European exploration, driven by a combination of economic, political, and religious motivations. The desire for new trade routes to Asia, the quest for gold and other valuable resources, and the ambition to spread Christianity all played a role in fueling the age of exploration.

Christopher Columbus’s voyages, beginning in 1492, marked a turning point in world history. While Columbus was not the first European to reach the Americas, his voyages initiated a period of sustained contact between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. This contact had a profound and often devastating impact on the peoples of the Americas.

### The Columbian Exchange

The Columbian Exchange refers to the widespread transfer of plants, animals, diseases, technologies, and ideas between the Americas, Europe, and Africa in the 15th and 16th centuries. This exchange had a transformative impact on all three continents.

From the Americas, Europe received new crops such as corn, potatoes, and tomatoes, which had a significant impact on European agriculture and population growth. From Europe, the Americas received new animals such as horses, cattle, and pigs, which transformed Native American societies in both positive and negative ways. However, the most devastating aspect of the Columbian Exchange was the introduction of European diseases to the Americas. Native Americans had no immunity to diseases such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, and these diseases caused a catastrophic decline in their populations.

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## References

[1] College Board. “AP United States History Course – AP Central.” [https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/courses/ap-united-states-history](https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/courses/ap-united-states-history)

## Period 2: 1607–1754

This period covers the establishment and development of the English colonies in North America. It explores the diverse motivations for colonization, the development of distinct colonial regions, the growth of transatlantic trade, and the complex interactions between Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans.

### European Colonization

The English were not the only Europeans to establish colonies in North America. The Spanish, French, and Dutch also had a significant presence in the region. The Spanish established colonies in Florida, the Southwest, and California, while the French established colonies in Canada and the Mississippi River Valley. The Dutch established a colony in what is now New York, which they called New Netherland.

Each of these European powers had different motivations for colonization and different relationships with the Native American populations. The Spanish were primarily interested in extracting wealth from the Americas and converting Native Americans to Catholicism. The French were primarily interested in the fur trade and developed relatively friendly relations with many Native American tribes. The Dutch were primarily interested in trade and established a major commercial center at New Amsterdam (now New York City).

### The Regions of British Colonies

The English colonies in North America can be divided into three distinct regions: the New England colonies, the Middle colonies, and the Southern colonies. Each of these regions had its own unique economic, social, and political characteristics.

The New England colonies (Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire) were founded by religious dissenters, primarily Puritans, who sought to create a society based on their religious beliefs. The economy of New England was based on small-scale farming, fishing, and trade. The society of New England was characterized by strong religious and social cohesion.

The Middle colonies (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware) were more diverse than the New England colonies, both in terms of their population and their economy. The population of the Middle colonies included people from a variety of European countries, and the economy was based on a mix of farming and trade. The society of the Middle colonies was characterized by a greater degree of religious and ethnic tolerance than the other colonial regions.

The Southern colonies (Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia) were primarily agricultural, with an economy based on the cultivation of cash crops such as tobacco, rice, and indigo. The society of the Southern colonies was characterized by a hierarchical social structure, with a small elite of wealthy planters at the top and a large population of enslaved Africans at the bottom.

### Transatlantic Trade

The English colonies in North America were part of a larger transatlantic trading network that connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas. This network, often referred to as the triangular trade, involved the exchange of goods, people, and ideas between the three continents.

From Europe, manufactured goods such as textiles, guns, and metalware were shipped to Africa, where they were exchanged for enslaved Africans. The enslaved Africans were then transported to the Americas, where they were sold to work on plantations. The raw materials produced on the plantations, such as sugar, tobacco, and cotton, were then shipped to Europe, where they were used to produce manufactured goods. This system was incredibly brutal and exploitative, and it had a profound and lasting impact on all three continents.

### Interactions Between American Indians and Europeans

The relationship between American Indians and Europeans was complex and often fraught with conflict. While there were some instances of cooperation and cultural exchange, the relationship was more often characterized by violence, displacement, and disease.

Europeans and American Indians had very different ideas about land ownership. Europeans believed in private property and saw land as a commodity that could be bought and sold. American Indians, on the other hand, had a more communal view of land ownership and did not believe that land could be owned by individuals. These different views of land ownership led to numerous conflicts between the two groups.

European diseases also had a devastating impact on American Indian populations. As we saw in Period 1, American Indians had no immunity to European diseases, and these diseases caused a massive decline in their populations. This demographic catastrophe made it easier for Europeans to dispossess American Indians of their land.

### Slavery in the British Colonies

Slavery was a fundamental institution in the British colonies, particularly in the Southern colonies. The first enslaved Africans arrived in Virginia in 1619, and the institution of slavery grew rapidly in the decades that followed. By the time of the American Revolution, there were hundreds of thousands of enslaved people in the British colonies.

Slavery in the British colonies was a brutal and dehumanizing institution. Enslaved people were considered to be property and had no legal rights. They were forced to work long hours in harsh conditions, and they were subject to the whims of their owners. Despite the brutality of slavery, enslaved people found ways to resist their enslavement and to create their own unique culture.

### Colonial Society and Culture

Colonial society and culture were a blend of European, African, and American Indian influences. The dominant culture was English, but it was modified and adapted to the new environment of the Americas. The colonies were also home to a variety of other European cultures, as well as a vibrant African American culture that developed in the context of slavery.

Religion played a central role in colonial society, particularly in New England. The Great Awakening, a religious revival that swept through the colonies in the 1730s and 1740s, had a profound impact on colonial society and culture. It led to the growth of new Protestant denominations and to a greater emphasis on individual religious experience.

## Period 3: 1754–1800

This pivotal period in American history witnessed the colonies’ transformation from a collection of disparate British outposts into an independent nation. It covers the French and Indian War, the escalating tensions with Great Britain, the American Revolution, and the challenges of building a new republic.

### The Seven Years’ War (The French and Indian War)

The French and Indian War (1754-1763), the North American theater of the larger Seven Years’ War, was a struggle for imperial dominance between Great Britain and France. The war began over competing claims to the Ohio River Valley and quickly escalated into a global conflict. While the British ultimately emerged victorious, the war had profound consequences for the colonies. It left Britain with a massive war debt, which led to a series of new taxes on the colonies, and it also altered the relationship between Britain and its American subjects.

### Taxation Without Representation

In the aftermath of the French and Indian War, the British government implemented a series of new taxes and regulations on the colonies in an attempt to raise revenue and assert greater control. These measures, which included the Sugar Act (1764), the Stamp Act (1765), and the Townshend Acts (1767), were met with widespread opposition in the colonies. The colonists argued that they were being taxed without their consent, as they had no representation in the British Parliament. The slogan “no taxation without representation” became a rallying cry for the growing resistance movement.

### Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution

The American Revolution was not just a political and military conflict; it was also an intellectual and philosophical one. The colonists drew on a variety of intellectual traditions, including the Enlightenment, republicanism, and the Great Awakening, to justify their resistance to British rule. Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke, with his ideas of natural rights and the social contract, were particularly influential. These ideas provided the colonists with a powerful intellectual framework for challenging the authority of the British government.

### The American Revolution

The American Revolution (1775-1783) was a long and bloody conflict that pitted the thirteen American colonies against the most powerful empire in the world. The war began with the battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775 and ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1783, which officially recognized the independence of the United States.

The American victory was far from certain. The colonists faced a number of significant challenges, including a lack of resources, a poorly trained army, and a deeply divided population. However, they were able to overcome these challenges thanks to the leadership of George Washington, the assistance of foreign allies such as France, and the determination of the American people.

### The Articles of Confederation

Following the Declaration of Independence in 1776, the Second Continental Congress drafted the Articles of Confederation, the first constitution of the United States. The Articles created a weak central government that had limited powers. The states retained a great deal of autonomy, and the central government was unable to effectively address the many challenges facing the new nation, such as a large war debt and a weak economy.

### The Constitutional Convention and Debates over Ratification

In 1787, delegates from twelve of the thirteen states met in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation. However, they soon decided to scrap the Articles altogether and write a new constitution. The Constitutional Convention was a long and arduous process, and the delegates had to compromise on a number of key issues, such as representation, slavery, and the power of the federal government.

The new Constitution was then sent to the states for ratification. The ratification process was a contentious one, with Federalists, who supported the Constitution, and Anti-Federalists, who opposed it, engaging in a vigorous public debate. The Federalists ultimately prevailed, and the Constitution was ratified in 1788.

### The Constitution

The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the land. It establishes a federal system of government in which power is divided between the national government and the state governments. It also creates a system of checks and balances to prevent any one branch of government from becoming too powerful. The Constitution has been amended 27 times, and it continues to be a source of debate and interpretation to this day.

### Shaping a New Republic

The 1790s were a critical period in the history of the new republic. The new government had to address a number of pressing challenges, including a large national debt, a weak economy, and a number of foreign policy crises. The decade was also marked by the rise of political parties, with the Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, and the Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson, offering competing visions for the future of the nation.

## Period 4: 1800–1848

This period is characterized by the growth of American nationalism and democracy, as well as by westward expansion and the rise of a market economy. It was a time of great change and transformation, as the United States began to come into its own as a nation.

### The Rise of Political Parties and the Era of Jefferson

The election of 1800 was a watershed moment in American history. It marked the first peaceful transfer of power from one political party to another, as the Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson defeated the Federalist John Adams. The election was a bitter and divisive one, but it ultimately demonstrated the strength and resilience of the new American republic.

Jefferson’s presidency was a time of great change and expansion. He oversaw the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, which doubled the size of the United States, and he sent Lewis and Clark on their famous expedition to explore the new territory. He also sought to limit the power of the federal government and to promote an agrarian vision of America.

### Politics and Regional Interests

The early 19th century was a time of growing political and regional tensions. The issue of slavery became increasingly divisive, as the North and the South developed very different economic and social systems. The North was becoming increasingly industrialized, while the South remained a largely agrarian society that was dependent on enslaved labor. These differences led to a number of political crises, such as the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which attempted to balance the interests of the North and the South.

### America on the World Stage

The United States also began to assert itself on the world stage during this period. The War of 1812, which was fought between the United States and Great Britain, was a major turning point. While the war was a military stalemate, it helped to foster a sense of American nationalism and to establish the United States as a legitimate and independent nation. The Monroe Doctrine, which was issued in 1823, was another important assertion of American power. It declared that the Western Hemisphere was off-limits to further European colonization.

### Market Revolution: Industrialization

The early 19th century was also a time of great economic change. The Market Revolution was a period of rapid economic growth and transformation that was driven by a number of factors, including new technologies, such as the cotton gin and the steam engine, and new forms of transportation, such as canals and railroads. This period saw the rise of a new industrial economy, particularly in the North, and the growth of a new class of wage-earning workers.

### Expanding Democracy

The early 19th century was also a time of expanding democracy. The property qualifications for voting were gradually eliminated, and the franchise was extended to all white men. This period also saw the rise of a new, more populist style of politics, as politicians began to appeal directly to the common man.

### Jackson and Federal Power

The presidency of Andrew Jackson (1829-1837) was a particularly important period in the history of American democracy. Jackson was a strong and charismatic leader who championed the cause of the common man. He also sought to expand the power of the presidency and to limit the power of the federal government. His presidency was marked by a number of major controversies, including the nullification crisis and the Bank War.

### The Development of an American Culture

The early 19th century was also a time of great cultural change. The United States began to develop its own unique culture, which was a blend of European, African, and American Indian influences. This period saw the rise of a new American literature, with authors such as Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper, and a new American art, with artists such as the Hudson River School.

### The Second Great Awakening

The Second Great Awakening was a religious revival that swept through the United States in the early 19th century. It was a period of intense religious fervor and excitement, and it had a profound impact on American society and culture. It led to the growth of new Protestant denominations, such as the Methodists and the Baptists, and to a greater emphasis on individual religious experience. It also inspired a number of reform movements, such as the abolitionist movement and the women’s rights movement.

## Period 5: 1844–1877

This period is one of the most turbulent in American history, marked by westward expansion, growing sectional tensions over slavery, the Civil War, and the subsequent era of Reconstruction. The nation was torn apart and then painstakingly put back together, but the scars of this period would remain for generations.

### Manifest Destiny

The 1840s were dominated by the idea of Manifest Destiny, the belief that the United States was destined to expand its dominion and spread democracy and capitalism across the entire North American continent. This ideology was fueled by a sense of national pride, a belief in American exceptionalism, and a desire for new land and resources. It was a powerful force that drove westward expansion and led to a number of conflicts, most notably the Mexican-American War.

### The Mexican-American War

The Mexican-American War (1846-1848) was a direct result of Manifest Destiny and the annexation of Texas in 1845. The war was a decisive victory for the United States, and it resulted in the acquisition of a vast new territory, including California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and parts of New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming. However, the war was also a controversial one, and it exacerbated the growing sectional tensions over the issue of slavery.

### The Compromise of 1850

The acquisition of new territory from Mexico reignited the debate over the expansion of slavery. The Compromise of 1850 was a package of five separate bills passed by the United States Congress in September 1850 that defused a four-year political confrontation between slave and free states regarding the status of territories acquired during the Mexican–American War. The compromise admitted California as a free state, but it also included a number of provisions that were favorable to the South, such as the Fugitive Slave Act, which required all citizens to assist in the capture and return of escaped slaves.

### Sectional Conflict: Regional Differences

The Compromise of 1850 provided only a temporary respite from the growing sectional conflict. The North and the South continued to drift apart, as they developed increasingly different economic, social, and political systems. The North was becoming an industrial powerhouse, while the South remained a largely agrarian society that was dependent on enslaved labor. These differences led to a number of political crises, such as the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, which allowed the residents of those territories to decide for themselves whether to allow slavery.

### The Civil War

The election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 was the final straw for the South. Lincoln was a member of the new Republican Party, which was committed to preventing the expansion of slavery. In response to his election, eleven Southern states seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America. The Civil War (1861-1865) was the bloodiest conflict in American history, and it resulted in the deaths of over 600,000 people.

The war was a long and brutal one, but the Union ultimately prevailed. The Union victory was due to a number of factors, including its superior resources, its larger population, and the leadership of Abraham Lincoln. The war had a profound and lasting impact on the nation. It resulted in the abolition of slavery, the preservation of the Union, and the strengthening of the federal government.

### Reconstruction

The period after the Civil War, known as Reconstruction (1865-1877), was a time of great hope and great disappointment. The federal government attempted to rebuild the South and to integrate the newly freed slaves into American society. However, these efforts were met with fierce resistance from white Southerners, and the period was marked by violence and political turmoil.

Reconstruction was ultimately a failure. The federal government was unable to protect the rights of African Americans, and the South was left to its own devices. The end of Reconstruction in 1877 marked the beginning of a long period of racial segregation and discrimination in the South.

## Period 6: 1865–1898

This period, often referred to as the Gilded Age, was a time of rapid industrialization, economic growth, and social change. It was a time of great opportunities and great challenges, as the United States was transformed from a largely agrarian society into an industrial powerhouse.

### Westward Expansion: Economic and Social Development

The late 19th century was a period of rapid westward expansion. The construction of the transcontinental railroad, which was completed in 1869, made it easier than ever before to travel to and settle in the West. The federal government also encouraged westward expansion through a number of policies, such as the Homestead Act of 1862, which gave free land to settlers.

Westward expansion had a profound impact on the environment and on the Native American populations of the West. The buffalo, which had once roamed the Great Plains in the millions, were hunted to near extinction. Native Americans were forced onto reservations, and their traditional way of life was destroyed.

### The “New South”

After the Civil War, some Southerners promoted the idea of a “New South,” a South that would be more industrialized and more integrated into the national economy. While there was some industrial growth in the South during this period, the region remained largely agrarian and impoverished. The sharecropping system, which replaced slavery, kept many African Americans and poor whites in a cycle of debt and poverty.

### The Rise of Industrial Capitalism

The late 19th century was a period of rapid industrialization. New technologies, such as the Bessemer process for making steel and the telephone, transformed the American economy. The railroad industry, in particular, played a key role in the growth of industrial capitalism. It created a national market for goods and services, and it spurred the growth of other industries, such as steel and coal.

This period also saw the rise of big business and the emergence of a new class of wealthy industrialists, such as Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller. These “captains of industry” built vast empires and amassed enormous fortunes. However, their business practices were often ruthless and exploitative, and they were criticized for their greed and their disregard for the welfare of their workers.

### Labor in the Gilded Age

The growth of industrial capitalism created a new class of wage-earning workers. These workers often toiled for long hours in dangerous and unhealthy conditions for low pay. In response to these conditions, workers began to organize into labor unions to demand better wages and working conditions. The late 19th century was a period of intense labor conflict, with a number of major strikes, such as the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 and the Pullman Strike of 1894.

### Immigration and Migration in the Gilded Age

The late 19th century was also a period of mass immigration. Millions of people from Europe and Asia came to the United States in search of economic opportunity. These “new immigrants,” who came primarily from Southern and Eastern Europe, were often poor and unskilled, and they faced a great deal of discrimination and prejudice. This period also saw a significant migration of African Americans from the rural South to the urban North in search of economic opportunity and to escape the racism and violence of the Jim Crow South.

### Politics in the Gilded Age

Politics in the Gilded Age was characterized by corruption and inaction. The two major political parties, the Republicans and the Democrats, were both dominated by big business, and they did little to address the many problems facing the nation, such as poverty, inequality, and political corruption. This period also saw the rise of a number of third parties, such as the Populist Party, which sought to represent the interests of farmers and workers.

## Period 7: 1890–1945

This period was a time of tremendous change and upheaval, as the United States grappled with the challenges of industrialization, urbanization, and immigration. It was also a time of growing American power on the world stage, as the United States emerged as a major global player.

### The Progressive Era

The Progressive Era (1890-1920) was a period of widespread social and political reform. Progressives were a diverse group of reformers who sought to address the many problems created by industrialization and urbanization, such as poverty, inequality, and political corruption. They advocated for a number of reforms, including the regulation of big business, the protection of workers and consumers, and the expansion of democracy.

### Imperialism: Debates

The late 19th and early 20th centuries were a period of intense debate over American imperialism. Some Americans, such as Theodore Roosevelt, argued that the United States had a duty to expand its influence and to spread its values to other parts of the world. Others, such as Mark Twain, argued that imperialism was a betrayal of American ideals and that it would lead to foreign entanglements.

### The Spanish-American War

The Spanish-American War (1898) was a major turning point in the history of American imperialism. The war was a decisive victory for the United States, and it resulted in the acquisition of a number of new territories, including Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The war also marked the emergence of the United States as a major world power.

### World War I

World War I (1914-1918) was a global conflict that had a profound impact on the United States. The United States initially remained neutral in the conflict, but it was eventually drawn into the war in 1917. The war had a number of major consequences for the United States. It led to a significant expansion of the federal government, and it also had a major impact on American society and culture.

### The 1920s: Innovations and Controversies

The 1920s were a period of great economic prosperity and cultural change. The decade was marked by a number of major innovations, such as the automobile and the radio, which transformed American life. It was also a period of great cultural conflict, as traditional values clashed with new, more modern ones. The decade was also marked by a number of major social and political controversies, such as Prohibition and the Scopes Trial.

### The Great Depression

The Great Depression (1929-1939) was the worst economic crisis in American history. It was a period of widespread unemployment, poverty, and social unrest. The Depression had a profound impact on American society and culture, and it led to a major expansion of the federal government.

### The New Deal

The New Deal was a series of programs and reforms enacted by the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt in response to the Great Depression. The New Deal had a number of major goals, including the relief of poverty, the recovery of the economy, and the reform of the financial system. The New Deal had a profound and lasting impact on the United States, and it helped to create the modern American welfare state.

### World War II

World War II (1939-1945) was a global conflict that had a profound impact on the United States. The United States was drawn into the war in 1941 after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. The war had a number of major consequences for the United States. It led to a massive expansion of the federal government, and it also had a major impact on American society and culture. The war also marked the emergence of the United States as a global superpower.

## Period 8: 1945–1980

This period is dominated by the Cold War, the long and tense standoff between the United States and the Soviet Union. It was also a time of great social and cultural change, as the Civil Rights Movement transformed American society and the Vietnam War divided the nation.

### The Cold War

The Cold War (1945-1991) was a period of intense geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union. The two superpowers never engaged in direct military conflict, but they competed for influence around the world through a variety of means, including proxy wars, propaganda, and an arms race. The Cold War had a profound and lasting impact on the United States, and it shaped American foreign policy for decades.

### The Civil Rights Movement

The Civil Rights Movement was a long and difficult struggle to end racial segregation and discrimination in the United States. The movement began in the 1950s and reached its peak in the 1960s. It was a period of great social and political upheaval, and it was marked by a number of major events, such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott, the March on Washington, and the Selma to Montgomery marches.

The Civil Rights Movement was a major victory for the cause of racial equality. It led to the passage of a number of landmark pieces of legislation, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. However, the struggle for racial equality is far from over, and the legacy of the Civil Rights Movement continues to be felt today.

### The Vietnam War

The Vietnam War (1955-1975) was a long and divisive conflict that had a profound impact on the United States. The United States became involved in the war in an attempt to prevent the spread of communism in Southeast Asia. However, the war was a costly and ultimately unsuccessful one, and it led to a great deal of social and political turmoil at home.

### The Great Society

The Great Society was a set of domestic programs launched by President Lyndon B. Johnson in the 1960s. The goal of the Great Society was to eliminate poverty and racial injustice in the United States. The Great Society included a number of major programs, such as Medicare, Medicaid, and Head Start. The Great Society had a profound and lasting impact on the United States, and it helped to create the modern American welfare state.

### The Counterculture

The 1960s were a period of great social and cultural change. The counterculture was a youth movement that rejected the values and norms of mainstream society. The counterculture was characterized by a number of different things, including a rejection of materialism, a questioning of authority, and an embrace of new forms of music, art, and spirituality.

## Period 9: 1980–Present

This period is marked by the rise of conservatism, the end of the Cold War, and the challenges of the 21st century. It is a time of great change and uncertainty, as the United States grapples with a number of new and complex issues.

### The Rise of Conservatism

The 1980s were a period of conservative resurgence. The election of Ronald Reagan in 1980 marked a major turning point in American politics. Reagan was a strong and charismatic leader who championed the cause of conservatism. He advocated for a number of conservative policies, such as tax cuts, deregulation, and a strong national defense.

### The End of the Cold War

The end of the Cold War was a major turning point in world history. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 marked the end of the long and tense standoff between the United States and the Soviet Union. The end of the Cold War had a profound and lasting impact on the United States, and it led to a major rethinking of American foreign policy.

### The Challenges of the 21st Century

The 21st century has been a time of great challenges for the United States. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, and the global financial crisis of 2008 have all had a profound impact on the nation. The United States is also facing a number of other major challenges, such as climate change, income inequality, and political polarization.

## Exam Preparation Strategies

Success on the AP US History exam requires more than just knowledge of the content. You also need to develop strong test-taking skills and strategies. The exam consists of two main sections: a multiple-choice and short-answer section, and a free-response section that includes a document-based question (DBQ) and a long essay question (LEQ) [2].

### Multiple-Choice Questions

The multiple-choice section consists of 55 questions that you must answer in 55 minutes. The questions are grouped into sets of three or four, and each set is based on a primary source, secondary source, or historical issue. To succeed on this section, you need to be able to quickly analyze and interpret the source materials while drawing on your knowledge of US history. Practice is key. Work through as many practice questions as you can, and pay attention to the types of questions that give you trouble.

### Short-Answer Questions

The short-answer section consists of three questions that you must answer in 40 minutes. You are required to answer the first two questions and then choose to answer either the third or the fourth question. These questions will be tied to a primary source, historical argument, data or maps, or general propositions of US history. You do not need to develop a thesis statement, but you must describe examples of historical evidence relevant to the source or question.

### Document-Based Question (DBQ)

The DBQ is one of the most challenging parts of the AP US History exam. You will be given a question and seven primary source documents, and you must use the documents to support your argument. You will have 60 minutes to complete the DBQ, including 15 minutes of reading time. To succeed on the DBQ, you need to be able to quickly analyze the documents, develop a strong thesis statement, and use the documents to support your argument. You should also be able to contextualize the documents and to analyze the point of view of the authors.

### Long Essay Question (LEQ)

For the LEQ, you will be given a choice of three essay options on the same theme, and you must choose one. You will have 40 minutes to complete the LEQ. Unlike the DBQ, there are no documents provided for the LEQ. You must draw upon your own knowledge of the topics you learned in your AP US History class. To succeed on the LEQ, you need to be able to develop a strong thesis statement, provide relevant historical evidence to support your argument, and analyze the historical significance of the topic.

## Study Tips for Success

Preparing for the AP US History exam requires a strategic and disciplined approach. Here are some tips to help you succeed:

**Create a Study Schedule:** Start preparing for the exam well in advance. Create a study schedule that allows you to review all of the material in a systematic way. Break down the material into manageable chunks, and set aside specific times each week to study.

**Use Multiple Resources:** Do not rely on just one textbook or study guide. Use a variety of resources, such as textbooks, online resources, and practice exams. This will help you to get a more comprehensive understanding of the material.

**Practice, Practice, Practice:** The best way to prepare for the exam is to practice. Work through as many practice questions and essays as you can. This will help you to become familiar with the format of the exam and to identify your strengths and weaknesses.

**Focus on the Themes:** The AP US History exam is organized around a number of key themes, such as American and national identity, work, exchange, and technology, and politics and power. Make sure that you understand these themes and that you can apply them to different historical periods.

**Develop Your Historical Thinking Skills:** The AP US History exam is not just about memorizing facts and dates. It is also about developing your historical thinking skills, such as analyzing primary and secondary sources, making historical comparisons, and crafting persuasive historical arguments. Make sure that you practice these skills throughout the year.

**Join a Study Group:** Studying with other students can be a great way to stay motivated and to learn from each other. Join a study group or form one with your classmates.

**Get Enough Sleep:** Do not stay up all night cramming for the exam. Make sure that you get enough sleep in the days leading up to the exam. A well-rested mind is much more effective than a tired one.

## Key Historical Documents to Know

Familiarity with key historical documents is essential for success on the AP US History exam. Here are some of the most important documents that you should know [3]:

**The Declaration of Independence (1776):** This document, written primarily by Thomas Jefferson, declared the thirteen American colonies to be independent from Great Britain. It is one of the most important documents in American history, and it articulates the fundamental principles of American democracy, such as the idea that all men are created equal and that they have certain unalienable rights.

**The Constitution of the United States (1787):** The Constitution is the supreme law of the land. It establishes a federal system of government in which power is divided between the national government and the state governments. It also creates a system of checks and balances to prevent any one branch of government from becoming too powerful.

**The Bill of Rights (1791):** The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the Constitution. It guarantees a number of fundamental rights and freedoms, such as freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and the right to bear arms.

**The Emancipation Proclamation (1863):** This document, issued by President Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War, declared that all enslaved people in the Confederate states were to be freed. While the Emancipation Proclamation did not immediately free all enslaved people, it was a major turning point in the war and in the history of American slavery.

**The Gettysburg Address (1863):** This short but powerful speech, delivered by President Abraham Lincoln at the dedication of the Soldiers’ National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, is one of the most famous speeches in American history. It eloquently articulates the principles for which the Union was fighting in the Civil War.

## Supreme Court Cases to Know

The Supreme Court has played a major role in shaping American history. Here are some of the most important Supreme Court cases that you should know [3]:

**Marbury v. Madison (1803):** This case established the principle of judicial review, which gives the Supreme Court the power to declare laws unconstitutional.

**Dred Scott v. Sanford (1857):** This case ruled that African Americans, whether enslaved or free, were not citizens of the United States and therefore had no standing to sue in federal court. It also ruled that Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the territories. This case is widely considered to be one of the worst decisions in the history of the Supreme Court.

**Plessy v. Ferguson (1896):** This case upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the doctrine of “separate but equal.” This case provided the legal basis for Jim Crow segregation in the South.

**Brown v. Board of Education (1954):** This case overturned Plessy v. Ferguson and ruled that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. This case was a major victory for the Civil Rights Movement.

**Roe v. Wade (1973):** This case established a woman’s constitutional right to have an abortion. This case has been one of the most controversial decisions in the history of the Supreme Court.

## Conclusion

Mastering AP US History is a challenging but rewarding endeavor. By understanding the key themes, events, and figures that have shaped American history, and by developing strong historical thinking skills, you will be well-prepared to succeed on the exam and to become a more informed and engaged citizen. This course has provided you with a comprehensive overview of American history, from the pre-Columbian era to the present day. We have explored the complex and often contradictory forces that have shaped the nation, and we have examined the struggles and triumphs of the American people.

Remember that history is not just about memorizing facts and dates. It is about understanding the past and using that understanding to make sense of the present and to shape the future. We hope that this course has inspired you to continue learning about American history and to engage with the important issues facing our nation today. Good luck on your exam, and may your journey through American history be a fulfilling and enlightening one.

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## References

[1] College Board. “AP United States History Course – AP Central.” [https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/courses/ap-united-states-history](https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/courses/ap-united-states-history)

[2] The Princeton Review. “Guide to the AP U.S. History Exam.” [https://www.princetonreview.com/college-advice/ap-us-history-exam](https://www.princetonreview.com/college-advice/ap-us-history-exam)

[3] Khan Academy. “AP US History study guide: periods and themes.” [https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-us-history/general-ap-us-history-skills-and-test-strategies/apush-examples/a/ap-us-history-study-sheet-1](https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-us-history/general-ap-us-history-skills-and-test-strategies/apush-examples/a/ap-us-history-study-sheet-1)

[4] Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. “AP US History Study Guide.” [https://www.gilderlehrman.org/ap-us-history](https://www.gilderlehrman.org/ap-us-history)