Odia Class 10 Physical Sciences

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# Odia Class 10 Physical Sciences: A Comprehensive Study Guide

Welcome to your comprehensive guide to mastering the Odia Class 10 Physical Sciences curriculum. This guide is designed to provide you with a deep understanding of the fundamental concepts of physics and chemistry, aligned with the Board of Secondary Education (BSE), Odisha syllabus. We will explore each topic in detail, providing clear explanations, real-world examples, and embedded video tutorials to enhance your learning experience. Our goal is to not only help you excel in your examinations but also to foster a lifelong appreciation for the sciences.

## H2: Unit 1: Chemical Reactions and Equations

This unit introduces the fundamental concepts of chemical changes, how to represent them through equations, and the different types of reactions that occur. Understanding these basics is crucial for mastering more advanced topics in chemistry.

### H3: Introduction to Chemical Reactions

A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the chemical transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. [1] Classic examples include the rusting of iron, the digestion of food, and the burning of fuel. These changes are often accompanied by observable phenomena such as a change in color, the evolution of a gas, or the formation of a precipitate.

> “A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances, the reactants, are converted to one or more different substances, the products. Substances are either chemical elements or compounds. A chemical reaction rearranges the constituent atoms of the reactants to create different substances as products.” – IUPAC Gold Book [2]

#### H4: Physical vs. Chemical Changes

It is important to distinguish between physical and chemical changes. A **physical change** alters the form of a substance, but not its chemical composition. Examples include melting ice or boiling water. A **chemical change**, on the other hand, results in the formation of new substances with different properties.

### H3: Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical reaction in the form of symbols and formulae, wherein the reactant entities are given on the left-hand side and the product entities on the right-hand side. [3]

For example, the reaction of magnesium with oxygen to form magnesium oxide is represented as:

`2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO`

**Balancing chemical equations** is essential to satisfy the law of conservation of mass, which states that matter cannot be created or destroyed. This means that the number of atoms of each element must be the same on both sides of the equation.

### H3: Types of Chemical Reactions

Chemical reactions can be classified into several types based on the nature of the changes involved.

| Reaction Type | Description | General Equation |
| :— | :— | :— |
| **Combination** | Two or more reactants combine to form a single product. | `A + B → AB` |
| **Decomposition** | A single compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances. | `AB → A + B` |
| **Displacement** | A more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound. | `A + BC → AC + B` |
| **Double Displacement** | Two compounds react by an exchange of ions to form two new compounds. | `AB + CD → AD + CB` |
| **Redox (Oxidation-Reduction)** | Reactions involving the transfer of electrons between species. | Varies |

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## References

[1] [NCERT Class 10 Science Textbook](https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php)
[2] [IUPAC Gold Book – Chemical Reaction](https://goldbook.iupac.org/terms/view/C01033)
[3] [BYJU’S – Chemical Equations](https://byjus.com/chemistry/chemical-equation/)
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## H2: Unit 2: Acids, Bases and Salts

This unit delves into the properties and reactions of acids, bases, and salts, which are fundamental to understanding many chemical processes in our daily lives, from the food we eat to the products we use.

### H3: Properties of Acids and Bases

**Acids** are substances that produce hydrogen ions (H⁺) when dissolved in water. They are known for their sour taste, ability to turn blue litmus paper red, and their corrosive nature. Common examples include hydrochloric acid (HCl) in our stomachs and citric acid in lemons. [4]

**Bases** are substances that produce hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in water. They are characterized by their bitter taste, slippery feel, and ability to turn red litmus paper blue. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), used in soap making, is a common base. [5]

### H3: pH Scale and Its Importance

The **pH scale** is a measure of how acidic or basic a substance is. It ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. A pH less than 7 indicates acidity, while a pH greater than 7 indicates alkalinity (basicity). The pH of a solution is a critical factor in many biological and chemical systems. [6]

| pH Range | Classification | Example |
| :— | :— | :— |
| 0-2 | Strongly Acidic | Battery Acid |
| 3-5 | Weakly Acidic | Vinegar, Tomato Juice |
| 6-8 | Neutral | Pure Water, Milk |
| 9-11 | Weakly Basic | Baking Soda |
| 12-14 | Strongly Basic | Bleach, Drain Cleaner |

### H3: Neutralization Reactions and Salts

A **neutralization reaction** occurs when an acid and a base react to form a salt and water. This reaction effectively neutralizes the acidic and basic properties of the reactants.

`Acid + Base → Salt + Water`

For example, the reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide produces sodium chloride (table salt) and water:

`HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O`

**Salts** are ionic compounds formed from the reaction of an acid and a base. They are composed of a cation from a base and an anion from an acid. [7]

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[4] [Vedantu – Acids, Bases, and Salts](https://www.vedantu.com/chemistry/acids-bases-and-salts)
[5] [BYJU’S – Bases](https://byjus.com/chemistry/base/)
[6] [Khan Academy – pH, pOH, and the pH scale](https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/acids-and-bases-topic/acids-and-bases/a/ph-poh-and-the-ph-scale)
[7] [NCERT Class 10 Science Textbook – Chapter 2](https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php)
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## H2: Unit 3: Metals and Non-Metals

This unit explores the properties of metals and non-metals, their reactivity, and the processes involved in extracting metals from their ores. Understanding these concepts is essential for appreciating the materials that make up our world.

### H3: Physical Properties of Metals and Non-Metals

**Metals** are typically solids at room temperature (with the exception of mercury), possess a metallic luster, are good conductors of heat and electricity, and are malleable and ductile. Examples include iron, copper, and gold. [8]

**Non-metals**, on the other hand, can be solids, liquids, or gases at room temperature. They are generally poor conductors of heat and electricity and are brittle. Examples include oxygen, carbon, and sulfur. [9]

### H3: Chemical Properties of Metals

Metals exhibit a range of chemical properties, including their reactions with oxygen, water, acids, and other metal salts. The reactivity of metals is determined by their position in the reactivity series.

| Reaction | General Equation/Description |
| :— | :— |
| **Reaction with Oxygen** | Metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides. `Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide` |
| **Reaction with Water** | Metals react with water to form metal hydroxides and hydrogen gas. `Metal + Water → Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen` |
| **Reaction with Acids** | Metals react with acids to form a salt and hydrogen gas. `Metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen` |

### H3: Metallurgy: Extracting Metals

**Metallurgy** is the science and technology of extracting metals from their ores and modifying them for use. The process typically involves three main steps:

1. **Concentration of Ore**: Removing the gangue (impurities) from the ore.
2. **Extraction of Metal**: Converting the concentrated ore into the metal. This often involves processes like roasting and calcination.
3. **Refining of Metal**: Purifying the extracted metal to obtain a high degree of purity.

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[8] [BYJU’S – Metals](https://byjus.com/chemistry/metals/)
[9] [Vedantu – Non-Metals](https://www.vedantu.com/chemistry/non-metals)
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## H2: Unit 4: Carbon and Its Compounds

This unit focuses on the unique properties of carbon that allow it to form a vast array of compounds, which are the basis of all life on Earth. We will explore the bonding in carbon compounds, their nomenclature, and their chemical properties.

### H3: Covalent Bonding in Carbon Compounds

Carbon has a valency of four, which means it can form four covalent bonds with other atoms. This property, known as **tetravalency**, allows carbon to form long chains, branched chains, and rings. The ability of carbon to form strong bonds with other carbon atoms is called **catenation**. These two properties are the reason for the vast number of carbon compounds.

### H3: Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds

**Saturated carbon compounds** are those in which the carbon atoms are linked by single bonds only. These are also known as **alkanes**. Examples include methane (CH₄) and ethane (C₂H₆).

**Unsaturated carbon compounds** are those in which the carbon atoms are linked by double or triple bonds. Compounds with double bonds are called **alkenes**, and those with triple bonds are called **alkynes**.

### H3: Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds

The **IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry)** nomenclature provides a systematic way of naming carbon compounds. The name of a compound is based on the number of carbon atoms in the longest chain, the type of bonds between them, and the functional groups present.

| No. of C atoms | Word Root | Alkane (ane) | Alkene (ene) | Alkyne (yne) |
| :— | :— | :— | :— | :— |
| 1 | Meth- | Methane | – | – |
| 2 | Eth- | Ethane | Ethene | Ethyne |
| 3 | Prop- | Propane | Propene | Propyne |
| 4 | But- | Butane | Butene | Butyne |
| 5 | Pent- | Pentane | Pentene | Pentyne |

### H3: Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds

Carbon compounds undergo various chemical reactions, including combustion, oxidation, addition, and substitution reactions.

* **Combustion**: Carbon compounds burn in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, heat, and light.
* **Oxidation**: Alcohols can be oxidized to carboxylic acids.
* **Addition Reaction**: Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst.
* **Substitution Reaction**: Saturated hydrocarbons undergo substitution reactions, where one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by another atom or group of atoms.

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## H2: Unit 5: Periodic Classification of Elements

This unit explores the systematic arrangement of elements in the periodic table, which helps us understand their properties and predict their behavior. We will look at the historical development of the periodic table and the trends in properties of elements.

### H3: Early Attempts at Classification

Scientists made several attempts to classify elements based on their properties. **Dobereiner’s triads** and **Newlands’ law of octaves** were early attempts, but they had limitations. The most significant early contribution was made by **Dmitri Mendeleev**, who arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic mass, leaving gaps for undiscovered elements.

### H3: The Modern Periodic Table

The **modern periodic table**, based on the work of Henry Moseley, arranges elements in order of increasing atomic number. The modern periodic law states that the properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic number. The table consists of 18 vertical columns called **groups** and 7 horizontal rows called **periods**.

### H3: Trends in the Modern Periodic Table

Several properties of elements show a periodic trend as we move across a period or down a group.

| Property | Across a Period (Left to Right) | Down a Group (Top to Bottom) |
| :— | :— | :— |
| **Atomic Size** | Decreases | Increases |
| **Metallic Character** | Decreases | Increases |
| **Non-metallic Character** | Increases | Decreases |
| **Electronegativity** | Increases | Decreases |

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## H2: Unit 6: Light – Reflection and Refraction

This unit explores the fascinating phenomena of light, including how it reflects off surfaces and refracts through different media. Understanding these principles is key to comprehending how we see the world and how optical instruments work.

### H3: Reflection of Light

**Reflection** is the bouncing back of light when it strikes a smooth surface. The laws of reflection state that:

1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface all lie in the same plane.

Spherical mirrors, both concave and convex, are used in a variety of applications, from car headlights to security mirrors.

### H3: Refraction of Light

**Refraction** is the bending of light as it passes from one medium to another. This occurs because the speed of light is different in different media. The laws of refraction, also known as Snell’s law, describe the relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction and the refractive indices of the two media.

Lenses, both convex and concave, use the principle of refraction to form images. They are the building blocks of telescopes, microscopes, and cameras.

### H3: Lens Formula and Magnification

The **lens formula** relates the focal length (f) of a lens to the object distance (u) and the image distance (v):

`1/f = 1/v – 1/u`

**Magnification** (m) produced by a lens is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object:

`m = h’/h = v/u`

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## H2: Unit 7: The Human Eye and the Colourful World

This unit explores the workings of the human eye, a remarkable optical instrument, and the beautiful phenomena of light that we observe in the world around us, such as rainbows and the blue color of the sky.

### H3: The Human Eye

The human eye is a complex organ that allows us to see the world. It consists of several parts, including the cornea, iris, pupil, lens, and retina. The lens focuses light onto the retina, which contains light-sensitive cells that send signals to the brain.

### H3: Defects of Vision and Their Correction

Common defects of vision include:

* **Myopia (Nearsightedness)**: The inability to see distant objects clearly. It is corrected using a concave lens.
* **Hypermetropia (Farsightedness)**: The inability to see nearby objects clearly. It is corrected using a convex lens.
* **Presbyopia**: The age-related difficulty in focusing on near objects. It is corrected using bifocal lenses.

### H3: Dispersion of Light and the Rainbow

**Dispersion** is the splitting of white light into its constituent colors when it passes through a prism. This happens because different colors of light bend at slightly different angles. A **rainbow** is a natural example of dispersion, where raindrops act as tiny prisms.

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## H2: Unit 8: Electricity

This unit introduces the fundamental concepts of electricity, including electric current, potential difference, resistance, and the heating effect of current. These concepts are essential for understanding the electrical devices that power our modern world.

### H3: Electric Current and Circuit

**Electric current** is the flow of electric charge. It is measured in **amperes (A)**. An **electric circuit** is a closed path through which electric current can flow. It typically includes a source of electricity (like a battery), a load (like a light bulb), and connecting wires.

### H3: Ohm’s Law

**Ohm’s law** states that the potential difference (V) across the ends of a given metallic wire in an electric circuit is directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided its temperature remains the same. [10]

`V = IR`

where R is the **resistance** of the conductor, measured in **ohms (Ω)**.

### H3: Resistors in Series and Parallel

Resistors can be connected in a circuit in two ways:

* **Series**: When resistors are connected end-to-end, the total resistance is the sum of the individual resistances. `R_s = R₁ + R₂ + …`
* **Parallel**: When resistors are connected across the same two points, the reciprocal of the total resistance is the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances. `1/R_p = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + …`

### H3: Heating Effect of Electric Current

When an electric current is passed through a resistor, electrical energy is converted into heat energy. This is known as the **heating effect of electric current**, or **Joule’s heating**. The heat produced (H) is given by:

`H = I²Rt`

This effect is utilized in devices like electric heaters, irons, and fuses.

—

[10] [BYJU’S – Ohm’s Law](https://byjus.com/physics/ohms-law/)
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## H2: Unit 9: Magnetic Effects of Electric Current

This unit explores the relationship between electricity and magnetism, a discovery that revolutionized our understanding of the physical world and led to the development of technologies like electric motors and generators.

### H3: Magnetic Field and Field Lines

A **magnetic field** is the region around a magnetic material or a moving electric charge within which the force of magnetism acts. **Magnetic field lines** are used to represent the magnetic field. They are imaginary lines that show the direction of the magnetic field at any point.

### H3: Magnetic Field Due to a Current-Carrying Conductor

Hans Christian Oersted discovered that an electric current produces a magnetic field. The direction of the magnetic field produced by a straight current-carrying wire can be determined using the **right-hand thumb rule**.

### H3: Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field

A current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force. The direction of this force is given by **Fleming’s left-hand rule**. This principle is the basis for the electric motor.

### H3: Electric Motor and Electromagnetic Induction

An **electric motor** is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. It works on the principle that a current-carrying coil placed in a magnetic field experiences a torque, which causes it to rotate.

**Electromagnetic induction**, discovered by Michael Faraday, is the production of an electromotive force (voltage) across an electrical conductor in a changing magnetic field. This principle is the basis for the electric generator, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

—
”’

## H2: Unit 6: Light – Reflection and Refraction

This unit explores the fascinating phenomena of light, including how it reflects off surfaces and refracts through different media. Understanding these principles is key to comprehending how we see the world and how optical instruments work.

### H3: Reflection of Light

**Reflection** is the bouncing back of light when it strikes a smooth surface. The laws of reflection state that:

1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface all lie in the same plane.

Spherical mirrors, both concave and convex, are used in a variety of applications, from car headlights to security mirrors.

### H3: Refraction of Light

**Refraction** is the bending of light as it passes from one medium to another. This occurs because the speed of light is different in different media. The laws of refraction, also known as Snell’s law, describe the relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction and the refractive indices of the two media.

Lenses, both convex and concave, use the principle of refraction to form images. They are the building blocks of telescopes, microscopes, and cameras.

### H3: Lens Formula and Magnification

The **lens formula** relates the focal length (f) of a lens to the object distance (u) and the image distance (v):

`1/f = 1/v – 1/u`

**Magnification** (m) produced by a lens is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object:

`m = h’/h = v/u`

—

## H2: Unit 7: The Human Eye and the Colourful World

This unit explores the workings of the human eye, a remarkable optical instrument, and the beautiful phenomena of light that we observe in the world around us, such as rainbows and the blue color of the sky.

### H3: The Human Eye

The human eye is a complex organ that allows us to see the world. It consists of several parts, including the cornea, iris, pupil, lens, and retina. The lens focuses light onto the retina, which contains light-sensitive cells that send signals to the brain.

### H3: Defects of Vision and Their Correction

Common defects of vision include:

* **Myopia (Nearsightedness)**: The inability to see distant objects clearly. It is corrected using a concave lens.
* **Hypermetropia (Farsightedness)**: The inability to see nearby objects clearly. It is corrected using a convex lens.
* **Presbyopia**: The age-related difficulty in focusing on near objects. It is corrected using bifocal lenses.

### H3: Dispersion of Light and the Rainbow

**Dispersion** is the splitting of white light into its constituent colors when it passes through a prism. This happens because different colors of light bend at slightly different angles. A **rainbow** is a natural example of dispersion, where raindrops act as tiny prisms.

—

## H2: Unit 8: Electricity

This unit introduces the fundamental concepts of electricity, including electric current, potential difference, resistance, and the heating effect of current. These concepts are essential for understanding the electrical devices that power our modern world.

### H3: Electric Current and Circuit

**Electric current** is the flow of electric charge. It is measured in **amperes (A)**. An **electric circuit** is a closed path through which electric current can flow. It typically includes a source of electricity (like a battery), a load (like a light bulb), and connecting wires.

### H3: Ohm’s Law

**Ohm’s law** states that the potential difference (V) across the ends of a given metallic wire in an electric circuit is directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided its temperature remains the same. [10]

`V = IR`

where R is the **resistance** of the conductor, measured in **ohms (Ω)**.

### H3: Resistors in Series and Parallel

Resistors can be connected in a circuit in two ways:

* **Series**: When resistors are connected end-to-end, the total resistance is the sum of the individual resistances. `R_s = R₁ + R₂ + …`
* **Parallel**: When resistors are connected across the same two points, the reciprocal of the total resistance is the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances. `1/R_p = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + …`

### H3: Heating Effect of Electric Current

When an electric current is passed through a resistor, electrical energy is converted into heat energy. This is known as the **heating effect of electric current**, or **Joule’s heating**. The heat produced (H) is given by:

`H = I²Rt`

This effect is utilized in devices like electric heaters, irons, and fuses.

—

[10] [BYJU’S – Ohm’s Law](https://byjus.com/physics/ohms-law/)

## H2: Unit 9: Magnetic Effects of Electric Current

This unit explores the relationship between electricity and magnetism, a discovery that revolutionized our understanding of the physical world and led to the development of technologies like electric motors and generators.

### H3: Magnetic Field and Field Lines

A **magnetic field** is the region around a magnetic material or a moving electric charge within which the force of magnetism acts. **Magnetic field lines** are used to represent the magnetic field. They are imaginary lines that show the direction of the magnetic field at any point.

### H3: Magnetic Field Due to a Current-Carrying Conductor

Hans Christian Oersted discovered that an electric current produces a magnetic field. The direction of the magnetic field produced by a straight current-carrying wire can be determined using the **right-hand thumb rule**.

### H3: Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field

A current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force. The direction of this force is given by **Fleming’s left-hand rule**. This principle is the basis for the electric motor.

### H3: Electric Motor and Electromagnetic Induction

An **electric motor** is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. It works on the principle that a current-carrying coil placed in a magnetic field experiences a torque, which causes it to rotate.

**Electromagnetic induction**, discovered by Michael Faraday, is the production of an electromotive force (voltage) across an electrical conductor in a changing magnetic field. This principle is the basis for the electric generator, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

—